INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN COMMERCIAL LAW
ABSTRACT
Artificial intelligence is a technology that can also be defined as the ability of a machine to simulate intelligent human behavior, providing more intuitive and faster solutions compared to human intelligence and ability based on a repetitive learning algorithm. Thanks to this ability, the use of artificial intelligence in the field of law is increasing day by day. Artificial intelligence-supported software prepared by the company “New Mind” for the use of lawyers, robo-board members and the Supreme Court of Appeals’ efforts to establish an artificial intelligence-based “Supreme Court of Appeals Jurisprudence Center” are examples of the presence of artificial intelligence in the field of law.
The personality or status that artificial intelligence has before the law is very considerable for determining its responsibility. Here, determining the scope and nature of the concept of “person” will help determine the personal state of artificial intelligence.
I. INTRODUCTION
The concept of artificial intelligence means that some work that requires intelligence to be performed by humans is performed by programming a machine or computer with human hands. In addition to these works performed by computers or machines, human mental processes such as acquiring information, seeing, perceiving, thinking, using language, making decisions, and solving problems constitute the subject of artificial intelligence. As can be understood from all these studies, the main purpose of artificial intelligence is to ensure that all functions that human intelligence or the mind can perform are programmed and applied to artificial systems.
Nowadays, the concept of artificial intelligence has already entered our lives and has gained a seat. Artificial intelligence is used from simple daily tasks, such as adjusting the light in our home, operating our dishwasher or washing machine, to complex tasks such as playing games and taking part in debates. Thanks to its ability to learn, which is the most important feature of artificial intelligence, artificial intelligence offers us features such as finding more than one solution method for the problem by continuing to learn, providing the most effective solution, and even preventing the problem from occurring by learning the source of the problem. This being the case, it has become inevitable for artificial intelligence to have an impact on the law. Especially this learning feature of artificial intelligence provides great convenience to lawyers in the field. With the artificial intelligence systems to be put into practice by the Supreme Court, users both save time by accessing specific, filtered information in seconds and provide the services it offers with the lowest margin of error, thanks to the notifications that artificial intelligence learns, detects and sends regarding the time and payment.
II. THE CONCEPT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
A. In General
Artificial intelligence has been interpreted as a sub-branch of computer science, especially the engineering part of this field during its formation phase. However, with the development of the field of artificial intelligence and new research, this field has also entered into close cooperation with philosophy, psychology, linguistics, and neurology. For artificial intelligence brings with it many abilities, such as providing numerical reasoning, and displaying human-like behaviors, movement, sound, speech, analysis, and perception.
Artificial intelligence is a technological feature that demonstrates human-specific behaviors and movements by using completely artificial tools without the need for a living organism. In other words, artificial intelligence is the technology that enables computers to think and act like humans. When it first appeared, when question X was administered to artificial intelligence, it was choosing and presenting the most rational one among the answers to question X that were given or defined before. But today, artificial intelligence does more than just answer question X. As it is known, obtaining information and organizing this information are the most important issues in artificial intelligence applications. The concepts of machine learning and deep learning have also been included in the scope of the concept of artificial intelligence. Thanks to its ability to learn, artificial intelligence has become a program that continuously improves its own ability. With these developments, the deficiencies of artificial intelligence have been eliminated and well-organized information has facilitated the solutions that artificial intelligence will bring.
B. History of Artificial Intelligence
Although the name of artificial intelligence was first mentioned at the 1956 Dartmouth Conference, the history of studies on thissubject dates back thousands of years1. However, there was no significant progress in the studies in this field until the 1960s. With the studies conducted in the 1980s, artificial intelligence entered the economic life and increased its effectiveness2.
The concept of artificial intelligence is as old as modern computers. In this sense, Alan Mathison Turing is the first person to bring the subject of intelligence into a discussion by asking the question “Can machines think?”. In 1943, during the Second World War, computer technology and artificial intelligence concepts emerged with the development of electromechanical devices that were put into production with crypto analysis studies.
Machines with the basic working order of a modern computer have reached the level of being inspired by human intelligence with programming studies. But in the following times, modern computers have gained a share in solving the problems of everyday life through developing specialized systems. In the 1970s, this field became more popular with the personal computers developed by computer manufacturers such as Apple, Microsoft, IBM, and Xerox3.
Although the history of artificial intelligence studies dates back to the 1950s, the fastest progress in this field has been experienced in the last 10-15 years. With these advances, great gains have been achieved in various sectors. Information processing of “the exponential growth in decades, the increase in the availability of large data sets to train the machine learning system, the standard software framework for the reproduction of iteration and experimentation, the development of a faster, broader and more widely” available data sets are important and rapidly growing commercial gains recently4.
It is possible to examine the studies conducted on artificial intelligence in historical terms as follows: It is possible to say that the first effects of artificial intelligence appeared in the year 1206 when Abul Iz Bin Rezzaz Al Jazari built automatic controlled machines powered by water. Although the concept of artificial intelligence began to take place in the minds with the invention of mechanical and quadratic calculators in 1623, the development of the binary counting system in 1672, which is the abstract basis of today’scomputers, accelerated the work in this field. Likewise, the writing of the first publication on the structure and functions of the human brain in 1890 led to the convergence of the concepts of artificial intelligence and human intelligence. The introduction of robots in the theater play “Rossum’s Universal Robots” in 1923 gave the news that artificial intelligence was also included in art. After the development of the programmable computer with 64k memory in 1936 and the birth of the theory of neural networks, the first electronic computer was built in 1941. With the construction of the first electronic computer, studies in the field of artificial intelligence were accelerated and learning programs were developed to be carried out by computers. In 1950, Alan Turing suggested the Turing test in his article titled “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” and tests were carried out to determine whether the person’s interlocutor was artificial intelligence.
The first artificial intelligence program, a device called Mark 1, was developed in 1951. In 1956, studies on artificial intelligence were initiated at the conference held in Dartmouth as part of the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence. With the emergence of the LISP programming language in 1958, a program that could solve mathematical problems was written. With the emergence of the programming language and the writing of the first programs, engineering and artificial intelligence began to merge, and as a result, robots began to be produced in industrial areas in 1962. Eliza, one of the most important milestones in the field of software and a natural language processing computer program, was discovered by the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in 1965. Following the use of the term internet in 1974, artificial intelligence began to be used in the industry for the first time and the first personal computer was produced by International Business Machines. With the invention of personal computers, engineering and artificial intelligence became more intertwined, and artificial intelligence began to find more application areas for itself. Thus, with the advent of the computer in 1985, programs that allow drawings on a computer began to be developed.
Artificial neural networks have become a branch of science that produces solutions to structural, statistical, mathematical, and philosophical problems for the realization of a task by combining multiple neurons within the framework of a certain discipline. In 1997, Deep Blue, the computer that can play chess, defeated world champion Gary Kasparov, proving that artificial intelligence can reach human intelligence and even surpass human intelligence thanks to its learning ability. After this development, as a result of the joint implementation of engineering and artificial intelligence and its positive reflection on technological developments, robots, and items using artificial intelligence have started to be put on the market. In this context, the first artificial intelligence toy, Furby, was launched in 1998. Home robot vacuum cleaners that work by detecting the square meter of the house using artificial intelligence have started to be produced.
From this point on, thanks to the work in the field of technology, engineering, and artificial intelligence, increased access to resources, increased interest of states and investors in artificial intelligence, and the achievements of scientists in this area, the work done has been groundbreaking. Within this scope, the first military robot project produced by the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, as well as the first bomb-dropping robot, BigDog, and Asimo, a humanoid robot produced by Honda Motor and the closest to human capability, was launched in 2005. Additionally, the fact that AlphaGo software defeated the world champion in the strategy game GO5has been one of the innovations that most concretely demonstrated the development of artificial intelligence.
Currently, artificial intelligence applications continue to be used in many electronic devices.
C. Legal Personality of Artificial Intelligence
The first of the most discussed issues in the relationship between artificial intelligence and law is the legal personality of artificial intelligence. In other words, it is uncertain whether artificial intelligence has the capacity to act and the capacity to have rights. The personality or status that artificial intelligence has before the law is very considerable for determining its responsibility. Here, determining the scope and nature of the concept of “person” will help determine the personal state of artificial intelligence. Since the concept of “person” is the subject of civil law, it will not be detailed here. However, it is crucial to state that according to the views that interpret the form in the sense, personality is not a natural state, but a legal situation and a concept beyond being human. Based on this idea, it will be possible for artificial intelligence to be accepted as a person before the law. On the other hand, opinions that evaluate personality in a material sense state that there is a close bond between the human and the person, and that the legal order can also evaluate an entity as a person or an object, but this cannot go beyond a theoretical qualification. Again, the opinions that interpret personality in material terms are of the opinion that a human is accepted as a person because he/ she has a will, so the legal order cannot make an entity without the will of a person, nor can it alienate a person from personality6.
The first of the legal statuses proposed before the legal or electronic personality for artificial intelligence was that of property. According to this view, artificial intelligence should be considered as any tool and should be considered the private property of a natural or legal entity. However, this view has not been accepted and has been frequently criticized in the face of the cognitive properties possessed by artificial intelligence. The next opinion is the slave opinion. This viewpoint argues that artificial intelligence has the function of serving people, and therefore it should be considered a slave by law. However, since slavery is not included in contemporary legal systems, this view has not been widely accepted in the doctrine7.
One of the types of personalities recognized by the legal order is the legal entity. A legal entity is the legal personality status recognized by the legal order as an entity with a set of assets other than a person, a collection of persons or goods. There are legal opinions in the teaching that recommend the recognition of a legal entity to intelligent software, which is one of the elements of artificial intelligence. Similarly, it is known that the euRobotics working group operating within the EU focuses on the electronic personality model. This model covers the manufacturer, seller and user dimensions of artificial intelligence elements and it is argued that it will bring new solutions in terms of legal and criminal liability. According to this model, elements of artificial intelligence, such as intelligent robots, will be officially registered in order to acquire personality. On the other hand, in the 2017 report prepared by the Legal Affairs Committee of the European Parliament, an electronic personality qualification was made for smart robots. In addition, the opinions suggesting that the legal entity may also be in question for artificial intelligence elements are of the opinion that it is legally possible for robots to gain legal personalities like companies, to be registered in an official registry, to allocate an asset to them, and to be compensated for the damages they cause, as they have decision-making equipment/ functions8.
The attitude adopted by the European Parliament with its report on artificial intelligence envisages that artificial intelligence should have a personality (electronic personality) and also that electronic personality should take place in the legal world as a third type of person, apart from real and legal personalities. Thus, as can be seen from the example of intelligent robots, giving legal status to artificial intelligence elements in the future is being considered9. In this context, artificial intelligence has been deemed as a “product” in accordance with the Council Directive 85/374/EEC of 25 July (“Directive”) and the Law on Product Safety and Technical Regulations No. 7223 (“UGDTK”), which was published in the Official Gazette dated March 12, 2020 and postponed for a year, and within the scope of the relevant regulations, the manufacturer and importer have been deemed to be mutually responsible to third parties for the defects and errors caused by the product.
D. Regulation of Artificial Intelligence in Terms of Turkish Law and the Legal Profession
Due to the fact that artificial intelligence has not yet completed its maturity in our country, it can be said that the current legal regulations are capable of responding to problems related to artificial intelligence. However, due to the fact that the legal system generally lags behind technology, it may be possible that the legal legislation remains insufficient and unresolved in legal disputes arising from artificial intelligence in the coming years. This situation makes it important to create legal regulations to be prepared in today’s conditions by taking into account the technological developments of the future. For this purpose, it would be appropriate to prefer non-binding legal rules instead of making regulations concerning the field of artificial intelligence with binding laws. Thus, there will be no deficiencies arising from legal regulations in the legal solution of artificial intelligence-related problems10.
It is very crucial that the legal regulations to be made are of a nature that will benefit the legal profession, the courts, members of the legal profession, and consumers. This necessity should be taken into account in the law-making processes. On the contrary, the legal regulations prepared should not limit competition and innovation both in the legal profession and in the professions that artificial intelligence is related to. Otherwise, strict, rigid, binding legal regulations may be encountered, and this may have consequences that are contrary to what is expected from legal regulations. That is, while the legal regulations are expected to provide solutions to disputes in the field of artificial intelligence, on the contrary, legal regulations may arise that leave legal disputes unresolved11.
In order to achieve universal standards from legal services and to integrate artificial intelligence technology into the legal field, members of the legal profession should have knowledge on artificial intelligence applications. It is also extremely important that artificial intelligence applications are equipped to meet the ethical requirements of the legal professions (for example, attorney-client confidentiality)12.
Since the elements within the scope of artificial intelligence are concepts that can bedefined as abstract in general, the issue of whether it can have features such as logic, thinking, consciousness and will, which are other abstract concepts, is discussed in teaching as both a philosophical and legal issue.
While the debates on the legal status of artificial intelligence were initially initiated through property and slavery, the dizzying development of artificial intelligence elements over time has also affected the view of artificial intelligence and legal views on this point. Today, when artificial intelligence is involved in all areas of life, it has become inevitable for it to enter the field of law and be used in various branches of law. As seen in the image presented in the study, the use of artificial intelligence applications in the legal sectors, which are used in almost all areas of social and economic life, can also provide great convenience for the members of the legal profession. However, it is very important that practitioners as well as members of the legal profession have knowledge about artificial intelligence applications and its use in the legal sectors.
E. Studies on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Law and the Effect of Developed Artificial Intelligence Supported Applications on Commercial Law
Trade laws, which have become more complex in the developing world, bring innovative approaches in practice. Artificial intelligence technologies, which envisage the realization of works and actions performed by human systems through machines, are also frequently used in the fields of commercial law13. The use of artificial intelligence technologies is almost inevitable for the rapid growth of data flows and the analysis of useful information among this huge volume of data. Today, the most common artificial intelligence technologies are frequently used in the fields of court practices such as search, classification, documentation, alternative dispute methods, analysis and obtaining statistical data. Along with these, artificial intelligence technologies are also encountered in the examination of contracts. Considering that the number of contracts signed by partnerships operating in more than one sector can be expressed in thousands, artificial intelligence technologies are used for the analysis and storage of financial obligations in contracts, obligations such as delivery, payment, notification, invoicing, assignment or termination, classification of temporary ob - ligations in contracts, informing clients and many more. Thus, it can be said that today’s artificial intelligence technology is frequently used in law and commercial life. The exam - ination of contracts with artificial intelligence technology brings with it many advantages. As a result of reviewing the contracts and classifying the obligations with artificial in - telligence technologies; saving of time can be achieved. Perhaps the most prominent benefit of artificial intelligence applications is saving time. Artificial intelligence-support - ed computer systems are able to perform ex - tensive data analyses more comprehensively than humans in a very short period of time. Thus, instead of analyzing a huge amount of data by many employees, it is highly likely that a profit will be made in terms of cost as a result of using artificial intelligence-support - ed computer programs.
Other advantages of artificial intelligence in analyzing bulky data from large partnerships can be listed as follows:
a) With the use of artificial intelligence tech - nologies, sooner and more accurate risk assessments regarding data can be made possible.
b) Artificial intelligence technologies can provide better quality analysis. That is, unlike a human, the work produced by intelligent software that does not get tired, bored or distracted can be truly error-free. In addition, it can also be used for comparing documents and machine learning, comparing contracts and identifying missing clauses or conditions, or inconsistently used terminology or undefined terms.
c) With artificial intelligence technologies, the classification of data taken from con - tracts and many other documents becomes easier. With the automatic comparison and arrangement of documents, lawyers can identify gaps in their documents and even legal assessments faster.
d) With the use of artificial intelligence tech - nologies, the stress of lawyers and legal con - sultants who respond to the needs of their clients can be reduced.
1. Examples of Artificial Intelli - gence Supported Programs Used by Lawyers
In our country, many different institutions are carrying out studies for the integration of ar - tificial intelligence technology into law. The work of New Mind Yönetim Sistemleri Anonim Şirketi, established in Istanbul in 2016, draws attention to the creation of artificial intelli - gence-supported data analysis systems re - quired by the commercial life and corpora - tions law and legislation, which is becoming more and more complex day by day. With the software developed by New Mind, huge data flows can be easily classified, for that matter lawyers can analyze data more quickly. With - in this scope, there are currently 12 different programs belonging to New Mind. Through the platform “Muhakemat” where artificial intelligence technology is used, lawyers can query the case and case information of their clients and receive reports on the case and occurrence through automation. With the system named “Mecelle”, which is also one of the important platforms belonging to the same company, advanced search and scan - ning of more than 100 million resources can be performed. At the same time, with the fea - ture of analyzing the imprint information of the contracts, it has brought lawyers the con - venience of examining and storing contracts. Thanks to its artificial intelligence technolo - gy supported system, the aforementioned imprint information enables the user to save time by presenting important information such as the signing date and effective date of the contract, the contract price, the subject of the contract, the cost of the guarantee, the insurance amount, the temporary acceptance date, to the user within a fraction of a second. Thanks to the learning feature of artificial intelligence, “Mürşit”, which is the interface of the Mecelle system belonging to the company, continues to learn and decouples the obligations contained in the contracts according to their duration and subject and presents them to the user. Thanks to this characteristic of the Mürşit, users can inquire about the obligations within the contract, the foreclosure periods and prescription period within seconds, and ensure maximum efficiency in time management. On the Mecellem platform, the aforementioned artificial intelligence technology-supported system called Mürşit provides great convenience to its users in the legal review of the contracts and the determination of the temporary obligations of the contracts. Murşit can quickly determine the payment, delivery, notification, control, document issuance, billing, assignment, termination, reconciliation and other time-related obligations in the contracts, and provides users with the convenience of a faster and error-free examination of the contracts. In addition to the artificial intelligence-based platforms developed by New Mind, the Tel Aviv-based company named “Lawgeex” also stands out for its works on the evaluation of contracts with systems supported by artificial intelligence technology. Contract review automation systems are used effectively by many users. In addition, CS Disco, Westlaw Edge and Quick Check companies also stand out with their integration efforts for the use of artificial intelligence technologies in the field of law. The use of artificial intelligence technology can be seen in many parts of commercial life as well as the analysis of contracts. That is to say, it is a known fact that there are even artificial intelligences participating in board meetings.
2. A New Concept in Commercial Law; Robo-Board Member
Today’s corporate law has been prepared according to an order in which managers are human beings, and it can be said that situations such as artificial intelligence being a member of the board of directors or owning shares in the company are excluded. Nevertheless, at the end of 2014, an algorithm called Vital (Validating Investment Tool for Advanced Life Sciences) was appointed to the board of directors of a Hong Kong-based company called Deep Knowledge Ventures. In addition, the algorithm is given the right to vote on “whether the firm should invest in a particular company”, just like other human members of the board of directors14. Vital was appointed to the board because of its ability to “automatically perform a company’s due diligence (due dilligence) and use historical datasets to uncover trends that have not yet been identified from the point of view of people researching top-level data”15. For example, Vital helped approve two investment decisions to fund Insilico Medicine, a company that develops computer-aided methods for drug discovery in aging research, and Pathway Pharmaceuticals, which selects and grades personalized cancer treatments based on a platform technology16. Despite all this, Vital could not qualify as a company director under Hong Kong’s partnership law regulations. It had been treated as a “member of the board of directors with observer status” by the (human) managers he worked with17. However, Vital has taken its place in history today as the world’s first artificial intelligence company manager. Although Vital could not be qualified as a company manager in accordance with Hong Kong partnership law, it can be said that his appointment to the board of directors is an important development in the field of commercial law. Dmitry Kaminskiy, partner at Deep Knowledge Ventures, where Vital is a manager, predicts that most tasks in typical companies will be automated within five to ten years, and artificial intelligence systems will be able to make their own decisions without any human support, at least in some cases18. Apparently, it can be said that the concept of robo-managers will enter the terminology of commercial law in the coming years. “The days may come when robo-boards and robo-managers play a role in empowering human governance boards to guide decisions and implement digital strategies”19. It has been revealed in a recent survey that the general opinion in society is in this direction. That is to say, “In a recent large-scale survey by the Global Agenda Council on the Future of Software & Society, Deep Shift; Technology Tipping Points and Societal Impact, aimed at predicting dates when game-changing technologies will become mainstream, nearly half of respondents expect the first artificially intelligent machine to sit on a business’ board of directors as early as 2025”20. It should not be overlooked that in the days when robo-directors and robo-managers find a place for themselves within the company, the commercial law legislation of countries will also need extensive revisions. It is a fact that in today’s commercial law legislation, the entire structure that makes decisions, makes regulations and forms organs in companies is designed for people. In cases such as robo-managers taking part in meetings of the board of directors or voting in the general assembly, there will be important issues to be evaluated under many main topics such as responsibility and will bring forth many debates. Briefly, it can be said that the legal world is awaiting quite busy days in the face of the fact that artificial intelligence technologies will be directly involved in company structures.
3. Studies of the Supreme Court on Artificial Intelligence Technologies
The fact that artificial intelligence has thoroughly entered today’s world and is being successfully used in many fields has also attracted the attention of the Supreme Court. Within the scope of the “Joint Project to Strengthen the Institutional Capacity of the Supreme Court”, the Supreme Court is working jointly with the European Union and the Council of Europe to establish an artificial intelligence-based “Supreme Court Case Law Center”. Although the details of the study have not yet been clarified, it is said that citizens can benefit from the aforementioned platform, just as lawyers, prosecutors or judges can benefit from it. Speaking about the platform, which is expected to be put into operation in 2023, President of the Court of Cassation, Mehmet Akarca, stated that he believed that the system in which artificial intelligence technology will be used will become widespread in an accurate and effective way, and that it will contribute to the unity of jurisprudence, which is an obligation of the Supreme Court. The website of the Council of Europe Programme Office states that “the overall objective of the project is to strengthen the judiciary and to make the independence, impartiality, effectiveness and administration of the judiciary more concrete and visible”21. It has also been explained that this project will “focus on issues that hinder the performance of the Supreme Court, including the excessive workload of the Divisional Court, the need for more effective working procedures, as well as the inconsistency and poor quality of judicial decisions regarding the appeal process and courts of appeal”22. With this practice, the Supreme Court not only brings an innovative perspective by integrating the developments in technology with the law, but also reduces the workload and provides more effective, fast, efficient and healthy services to citizens. Thanks to this innovation offered by the Supreme Court, users will be able to access important and relevant information in a short period of time by accessing the summary report of case files, petitions and all kinds of documents related to the case, which are hundreds of pages long, and thus, the prosecution and negotiation processes will beaccelerated. In addition, citizens will be able to predict the results of their actions before the court by using advanced search options before judication decisions are made.
III. CONCLUSION
The concept of artificial intelligence, which was first mentioned at the Dartmouth Conference in 1956, has continued to develop until today and has reached our homes. It has become inevitable that the law, which takes place in all areas of our lives, is not affected by artificial intelligence technology. Artificial intelligence, which makes our daily life easier, has now started to enter the practice of law and has already started to contribute to time management, which is very important for lawyers. While the research on the concept of the personality of artificial intelligence, which is the focus of the discussions, continues at full speed, artificial intelligence-based programs are being developed in terms of the sustainability of commercial life, which is getting more and more complex day by day. Efficient storage, sorting and analysis of huge amounts of data transferred through contracts and many other documents can be easily performed through platforms supported by artificial intelligence. In addition, it has become possible to see the reflection of artificial intelligence in the practices of the Supreme Court. Because, within the scope of the “Strengthening the Institutional Capacity of the Supreme Court of Cassation” project jointly conducted by the Presidency of the Supreme Court and the Council of Europe, signatures have been made for the establishment of an artificial intelligence-based “Supreme Court Case Law Center”. In this way, both time savings can be achieved and the need for manpower can be reduced. Additionally, robo-board members and robo-directors who have joined the company’s board of directors and can vote have also appeared, and all these developments have once again revealed that revisions will have to be made to the commercial laws of countries in accordance with the law on partnerships. It has been stated by many sects that the use of artificial intelligence technology in law, which is considered relatively new compared to other applications of law, will take its place in almost every art of the application in the coming years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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FOOTNOTE
1 The concept of artificial intelligence, which is a sub-branch of computer science, was first put forward by the American computer scientist John McCarthy in 1956.
2 Sibkat Kaçtıoğlu/ Yavuz Kılağız, Yapay Zeka Bilgi İşlem Teknolojisi ve Bileşenleri, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, Vol. 14, Iss. 1, 2000, p. 359.
3 İpek Sucu/ Elif Ataman, Dijital Evrenin Yeni Dünyası Olarak Yapay Zeka Ve Her Filmi Üzerine Bir Çalışma, Yeni Medya Elektronik Dergi, Vol. 4, Iss. 1, January 2020, p. 41.
4 Furkan Şen/ Doğanay Yurtoğlu, Teknoloji ve Güvenlik İlişkisi Bağlamında Yapay Zekanın İstihbarat Analizindeki Önemi, Güvenlik Çalışmaları Dergisi, Vol. 22, Iss. 1, Year 22, June 2020, p. 31.
5 Müjdat Gökçe, Yapay Zeka (Artificial Intelligence) Tanım, Gelişim ve Gelecek, 2020, p. 8. https://www. academia.edu/35663224/Yapay_Zek% C3%A2_Artificial_Intelligence_ Tan%C4%B1m_Geli%C5%9Fim_ve_Gelecek (Last Access: 03.06.2022); Harun Pirim, Yapay Zeka, Journal of Yasar University, Iss. 1(1), June 2006, p. 83-84.
6 Selin Çetin, “Yapay Zeka ve Hukuk ile ilgili Güncel Tartışmalar”, in: Yapay Zeka Çağında Hukuk (İstanbul, Ankara ve İzmir Baroları Çalıştay Raporu), 2019, p. 53-54.
7 Başak Bak, Medeni Hukuk Açısından Yapay Zekanın Hukuki Statüsü ve Yapay Zeka Kullanımından Doğan Hukuki Sorumluluk, TAAD, Year 9, Iss. 35 (July 2018), p. 217-219; Seda Kara Kılıçarslan, Yapay Zekanın Hukuki Statüsü ve Hukuki Kişiliği Üzerine Tartışmalar, YBHD, Year 4, Iss. 2019/2, p. 378.
8 Çetin, p. 55-56; Bak, p. 219-220; Kara Kılıçarslan, p. 380.
9 Bak, p. 220.
10 Selin Çetin: “Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekanın Düzenlenmesi”, in: Yapay Zeka Çağında Hukuk (İstanbul, Ankara ve İzmir Baroları Çalıştay Raporu), 2019, p. 104-105.
11 Derya Durlu Gürzumar, “Yapay Zekanın Hukuk Mesleği Açısından Düzenlenmesi”, in: Yapay Zeka Çağında Hukuk (İstanbul, Ankara ve İzmir Baroları Çalıştay Raporu), 2019, p. 107.
12 Durlu Gürzumar, p. 108.
13 Cem Say, 50 Soruda Yapay Zeka, 18th Edition, İstanbul, 2020, p. 83; Nils J. Nilsson, Yapay Zeka Geçmişi ve Geleceği, Transl. Mehmet Doğan, 2nd Edition, İstanbul, 2019, p. 13.
14 Rob Wile, ‘A Venture Capital Firm Just Named an Algorithm to its Board of Directors’ (Business Insider, 13 May 2014) http://www.businessinsider. com/vital-named-to-board-2014- 5?IR=T via Florian Möslein, “Yönetim Kurulu Toplantı Odasındaki Robotlar: Yapay Zeka ve Şirketler Hukuku”, transl. Sevda Bora Çınar, İstanbul Hukuk Mecmuası, V. 79, Iss. 2, 2021, p. 701.
15 Ellie Zolfagharifard, ‘Would you take orders from a Robot? An artificial intelligence becomes the world’s first company director’ (Daily Mail, 19 May 2014) http://www.dailymail. co.uk/sciencetech/article2632920/ Would-orders-ROBOTArtificial-intelligence- world-s-company-director-Japan. html via Möslein, p. 701.
16 ‘Deep Knowledge Ventures announces new investment fund for life sciences and aging research’, (EurekAlert!, 16 December 2015) https:// www.eurekalert.org/ pub_releases/ 2015-12/brf-dkv121515.php via Möslein, p. 702.
17 Nicky Burridge, ‘Artificial intelligence gets a seat in the boardroom’, (Nikkei Asian Review, 10 May 2017) http://asia.nikkei.com/ Business/Companies/Artificial-intelligence- gets-a-seat-in-the-boardroom via Möslein, p. 701.
18 Nicky Burridge, ‘Artificial intelligence gets a seat in the boardroom’, (Nikkei Asian Review, 10 May 2017) http://asia. nikkei.com/ Business/Companies/Artificial-intelligence- gets-a-seat-in-the-boardroom via Möslein, p. 702.
19 Michael Hilb, ‘Toward an Integrated Framework for Governance of Digitalization’, in id (Ed), Governance of Digitalization via Möslein, “Yönetim Kurulu Toplantı Odasındaki Robotlar: Yapay Zeka ve Şirketler Hukuku”, transl. Sevda Bora Çınar, İstanbul Hukuk Mecmuası, C. 79, S. 2, 2021, p. 702.
20 World Economic Forum’s Global Agenda Council on the Future of Software and Society, “Deep Shift – Technology Tipping Points and Societal Impact”, Survey Report, Eylül 2014,
21 http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_GAC15_ Technological_Tipping_ Pointsreport_2015.pdf via Möslein, p. 721. 21 Council of Europe Portal -https:// www.coe.int/tr/web/ankara/ strengthening-the-institutional- capacity-of-court-of-cassation#{% 2248288700%22:[0]} (Last Access, 05.06.2022).
22 Council of Europe Portal -https:// www.coe.int/tr/web/ankara/ strengthening-the-institutional- capacity-of-court-of-cassation#{% 2248288700%22:[0]} (Last Access, 05.06.2022).
