ABSTRACT
The United Nations’ 2030 Sustainable Development Goals were established as a global call to combat injustice and inequality, end extreme poverty and fight climate change and were adopted by Turkey. “Accessible and Clean Energy”, one of the Sustainable Development Goals, has been supported by Turkey through various regulations. In this paper, Turkey’s laws, and policy documents on energy efficiency are analyzed to evaluate their compliance with the relevant Sustainable Development Goals and it is concluded that Turkey is well ahead in terms of legislation and action plans. In addition, the practices in Turkey within the scope of Sustainable Development Goals are evaluated and the rate of actual achievement of these goals by Turkey is explained with the support of data.
I. INTRODUCTION
The concepts of efficiency and sustainability have gained an inclusive meaning with the industrial revolution and have played a role in strategies that take into account environmental benefits. Sustainable development, on the other hand, has emerged as a solution to the unbalanced growth in industry and economy in the last fifty years with its human-centered perspective. The United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (“SDGs”) have emerged as one of the solutions against poverty and climate change caused by unbalanced economic growth. This global call to action has been adopted by 193 countries, including Turkey, and aims to ensure that sustainable development plays a role in the social and economic policies of countries.
The Sustainable Development Goal “Affordable and Clean Energy” (“Goal Seven”), which aims to ensure energy efficiency and increase the use of renewable energy, has been supported and adopted by Turkey through legislation, regulations, and action plans. First, the definitions of efficiency and sustainable development need to be examined to understand Turkey’s energy efficiency developments.
II. EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A. Efficiency
Efficiency has moved from an understanding that is limited to the financial records of businesses into a more inclusive meaning, covering the welfare of society and the economies of countries. Today’s understanding of efficiency should focus on raising the level of welfare as stated by the International Labor Organization. According to the inclusive understanding, efficiency should be perceived as a development strategy; and it should serve to reduce poverty in society, ensure peace, improve working conditions, increase employment and sustainable development1.
B. Sustainable Development
Sustainable development emerged in the early 1970s as a result of the search for solutions to the problems created by practices that only aim at economic profitability in the consumption and production processes and ignore environmental benefits in the long run.The first important step taken to raise awareness on environmental issues globally was the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972 (“Stockholm Conference”). The Stockholm Conference adopted an ecological development policy in order to ensure a balance between economic development and ecology, and aimed to ensure that future generations benefit from resources with a human-centered approach. At the conference, which brought together numerous nations with various socioeconomic structures and levels of development, the Declaration on the Human Environment (“Declaration”) was adopted. This Declaration, although lacking sanctions, emphasized that the environment is the common heritage of humanity; it has served as the cornerstone of the environmental right, which is one of the third generation rights, and set an example for the next steps to be taken in this regard2.
Another step taken for the unbalanced growth in industry and the economy was the report entitled Limits to Growth prepared and presented in 1972 by the Club of Rome, which was established in 1968 by scientists and industrialists.
The Sustainable Development was first introduced in the Brundtland Report (Our Common Future) published by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. Continuing the objectives of the Stockholm Conference, the Brundtland Report documented, for the first time, the negative consequences of globalization and turned attention to industrialization and uncontrolled population growth. According to the Brundtland Report, sustainable development consists of three pillars: environmental protection, social development and economic growth. According to the Brundtland Report, attempts to overcome challenges such as climate change or water scarcity can only be implemented if sustainable development is promoted. Sustainable development, as defined in the Brundtland Report, is the attempt to meet people’s present needs without compromising the needs of future generations3.
III. UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Although the concept of sustainable development is a global acceptance, it’s only achievable if it is included in domestic practices and legislation of the countries. The goals of the United Nations play an important role in the achievement of sustainable development within the scope of ensuring the role of sustainability in local social and economic policies and ensuring the international integration of these goals. It should be noted that the SDGs do not have the characteristics of an international agreement, but only constitute common goals for the states that adopt these goals. States are not obliged to make changes in their domestic legislation in line with the SDGs.
A. Millennium Development Goals
While it was previously practiced for the Member States of the United Nations to set specific goals to ensure sustainable development, the Millennium Development Goals was the first to set a deadline for the realization of these concrete goals. The Millennium Development Goals which were set to ensure that member states make innovations in their social and economic policies with a sustainable development perspective, were announced at the United Nations General Assembly convened in September 2000. In the Millennium Summit, the goals of improving economic, environmental and social conditions in the world by 2015 were accepted and eight Millennium Development Goals were set for the achievement of these goals. Within the scope of these goals, member states have made commitments and made changes in their legislation in order to achieve the goals4.
The 2015 Millennium Development Goal Report showed that the efforts made by Member States to achieve the eight goals, including the goal of “ensuring environmental sustainability”, were largely successful5. The 2015 Millennium Development Goal Report emphasized the importance of political commitment and long-term cooperation between countries and laid the groundwork for the SDGs.
B. United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals
In 2012, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro, the applicability of the Millennium Development Goals were put up for discussion. For this reason, the United Nations established the SDGs, also known as the “Global Goals”, in 2015 and called for global action to combat injustice and inequality, end extreme poverty and combat climate change by 2030. These goals have been adopted by 193 member states, including Turkey6. Unlike the Millennium Development Goals, the SDGs included not only developing countries but also less developed countries as responsible countries for the realization of the goals.
The SDGs consist of 17 main goals and 169 sub-goals. The main objectives of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, organized under 17 main headings, are stated as follows7:
1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequality
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships to achieve the Goals
The SDGs will be implemented by Member States in their development policies and plans and managed by Member States.
The SDGs serve as a compass for member states to align their development commitments with the country’s plans. Achieving these goals depends not only on the work of governments, but also on the cooperation of civil society organizations, the private sector and other organizations. Multi-stakeholder task allocation is an important component of the SDGs.
In order to track countries’ compliance to the established targets, the United Nations has urged that countries develop national indicators. Countries are responsible for explaining the steps taken towards the goals and examining the progress made through the progress report they prepare every year. The success of countries in their implementation of the SDGs depends on the development policies they adopt towards these goals. Even though they are not legally binding, member states should formulate, adopt and implement framework policies to achieve these goals.
IV. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL SAND ENERGY EFFICIENCY
A. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy as Two Integral Parts of Sustainable Energy
Energy efficiency is the aim of reducing the amount of energy required to provide energy-generated products and services. Energy efficiency is to consume less energy without reducing the quality of services provided and the standard of life of people. Energy efficiency in businesses is to consume less energy without reducing the quality and quantity of products. Only when efficient production processes and technologies are used, or when proven techniques are used to cut down on energy losses, can energy be considered efficient.
Renewable energy is energy that is derived from natural resources and can be renewed at a higher rate than it is consumed. Non-renewable energy is energy that causes harmful greenhouse gas emissions during its production. Comparing the emission production of renewable and non-renewable energy, renewable energy produces much lower emissions than burning fossil fuels. The transition from fossil fuels, which account for the main share of emissions, to renewable energy is now seen as the key to solving the climate crisis.
Energy efficiency and renewable energy are two pillars of a sustainable energy policy. Energy efficiency and renewable energy must be developed together for the stabilization as well as the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Efficiency in energy consumption is crucial if renewable energy sources are to have an impact on lowering the use of fossil fuels. Without energy efficiency, energy use will accelerate, in which case renewable energy development will pursue a regressive target. Likewise, unless renewable energy sources become rapidly efficient, demand growth slowed by efficiency will only begin to reduce total emissions. In contrast, the development of renewable energy is required concurrently in order to minimize the carbon content of energy sources. Therefore, both energy efficiency and renewable energy development must grow in parallel to make progress towards a sustainable energy economy8.
B. Goal Seven and Energy Efficiency
As the world’s population grows, so does the demand for energy. Between 1990 and 2010, the number of people with access to electricity increased by 1.7 billion. If the source of energy demand is fossil fuel-based energy production, this will result in negative changes in the climate system and an increase in greenhouse gases9.
According to data released by the United Nations, the promotion of renewable energy has resulted in more than 20% of the world’s energy production coming from renewable sources as of the beginning of 2011. Despite this, one in five people do not have access to electricity. As demand for energy continues to grow, it is clear that a major increase in clean and renewable energy production will be required globally10.
By 2030, investment in clean energy sources such as solar, wind and thermal is required to ensure that clean energy is accessible to one and all. Under the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal number seven, titled “Affordable and Clean Energy”, there are three goals and sub-goals that follow these goal targets. The goals are as follows:
“7.1. By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services
7.2. By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix
7.3. By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
7.a. By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology
7.b. By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States,and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support”11.
The above targets aim to reduce the dangers posed to humanity and the environment by the greenhouse effect caused by the use of carbon-based fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil). If the targets are fulfilled, the use of renewable energy sources will increase and efficiency in energy consumption will be ensured.
V. CURRENT ENERGY EFFICIENCY REGULATIONS IN TURKEY AND THEIR COMPLIANCE WİTH THE UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Through a number of international agreements, legislation, action plans and strategies, Turkey has established commitments and regulations regarding energy efficiency and renewable energy. In this section of the article, Turkey’s regulations under Goal Seven on “Affordable and Clean Energy” will first be examined and Turkey’s situation under Goal Seven will be evaluated within the scope of the regulations. Then, within the scope of the same target, Turkey’s practices on renewable energy will be analyzed.
A. Turkey’s Evaluation of Regulations within the Scope of Goal Seven
74% of Turkey’s energy needs are met from external sources12. The insufficiency of energy resources affects Turkey’s external dependency. When Turkey’s renewable energy potential is compared with its external dependency rate, it can be seen that there are deficiencies in renewable energy production. According to the data of the Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation (“TEİAŞ”), as of 2020, Turkey covers 16% of its energy from wind and solar energy, while Germany provides 30% of its energy from solar and wind energy in geographical conditions with less potential to produce solar energy13.
Turkey’s energy efficiency regulations consist of various policy documents, laws and regulations. The main regulation on energy efficiency is the Energy Efficiency Law, which entered into force in 2007. The “Energy Efficiency Strategy Paper” issued in 2012 and setting energy efficiency targets for 2023, the “National Energy Efficiency Action Plan” issued in 2018 and the “Strategic Plan” issued by the Repbulic of Turkey Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources for the years 2019 and 2023 constitute important policy documents. The main legislation and policy documents within the scope of energy efficiency are listed chronologically in the table:
1. Energy Efficiency Law
Law No. 5627 on Energy Efficiency (“Law No. 5627”) is one of the first legal regulations in this context. Law No. 5627 aims to minimize the negative impact of energy on the environment by reducing energy expenditures as well as energy use.
The most important benefit of the Energy Efficiency Law is the establishment of an administrative structure to ensure effective coordination, supervision and management of energy efficiency. The Energy Efficiency Coordination Board, an administrative structure, has prepared strategies, plans and programs on energy efficiency on a national level.
Law No. 5627 also encouraged education and awareness-raising activities to embed energy efficiency into the social structure. In addition, various support instruments and sectoral cooperation have been envisaged to ensure efficiency in the energy sector. Although the Energy Efficiency Law entered into force before the adoption of the SDGs, the strategy of sectoral cooperation and public awareness-raising that the United Nations has implemented both under the SDGs and in its previous projects is similarly adopted in Law No. 5627.
The private sector’s contribution to sustainable development is set out in Goal 17 (“Partnerships for the Goals”), and brings a new perspective to the traditional understanding of development: the private sector has become an enabler rather than an instrument of development.
Law No. 5627 in parallel authorized universities and energy efficiency consulting companies to provide services for sustainable development, namely energy efficiency.
Article 13/1 (h) of Law No. 5627 quotes “... ensuring coordination between universities, private sector and non-governmental organizations to develop effective and efficient cooperation” among the duties of the Electricity Research and Development Administration. Thus, cooperation between state administrations and the private sector in energy efficiency is envisaged.
Law No. 5627 introduced the obligation to have energy managers in industrial enterprises, certain commercial buildings, service and public buildings. Within the scope of these responsibilities, reporting and publication of information on energy expenditures and efficiency of these buildings are also included in the scope of Law No. 5627.
2. Regulation on Increasing the Ef - ficiency of Energy Resources and Efficiency in the Use of Energy
The Regulation on Increasing the Efficiency of Energy Resources and Efficiency in the Use of Energy (“Regulation”), which came into force in 2011, continued cooperation with the private sector on energy efficiency and broadened the application of the ener - gy manager concept first introduced by Law No. 5627.
The most effective change introduced by the Amended Regulation on Increasing the Efficiency of Energy Resources and Efficiency in the Use of Energy was the ISO 50001 certification. ISO 50001 is the energy man - agement system standard published by the World Standards Organization in 2011 after the United Nations Industrial Development Organization stated the need for a common standard for energy management systems. ISO 50001 ensures that energy savings are achieved, energy expenditures are reduced and environmentally sensitive processes and systems are created by establishing an energy management system.
With the Amended Regulation on Increas - ing the Efficiency of Energy Resources and Efficiency in the Use of Energy published in the Official Gazette dated 25.01.2020 and numbered 31019, the ISO 50001 standard was included in the legislation on energy efficiency. According to this amendment, public and commercial buildings, service buildings, electricity generation facilities, industrial enterprises, organized industrial zones and industrial enterprises that are obliged to establish an energy management unit have been made responsible for establishing and certifying the TS EN ISO 50001 Energy Management System.
This amendment directly serves the SDGs. As a common standard for energy management systems, ISO 50001 makes a significant contribution to Sustainable Development Goal 7.2 that aims higher share of renewable energies and Sustainable Development Goal 7.3 that aims increase in energy efficiency. The addition of ISO 50001, an international standard, to the legislation has contributed to the global integration of different energy standards. Thus, the requirements for energy efficiency can be determined by an already existing standard, and the process of additions to various energy management systems can be simplified based on the mentioned standard. This facilitates the increase in the share of renewable energy in global energy resources. Since the use of renewable energy in buildings is standardized with ISO 50001 and compliance is simplified, an increase in energy efficiency will be inevitable. An important issue to consider is that there is no obligation for energy managers in residential buildings. One of the important aspects that Turkey should focus on to achieve energy efficiency is the energy used in residential buildings. Non-insulated buildings lose up to sixty percent more energy than insulated buildings. According to Turkish data, 80% of buildings are not yet insulated. Increasing thermal insulation in buildings will improve energy efficiency. According to the data, about 30% of energy use in Turkey is due to the energy used in buildings. Compared to developed countries, this energy expenditure is three times higher14.
3. Regulation on Energy Performance in Buildings
According to the 2011 amendments to the Regulation on Energy Performance in Buildings (“BEPY”) numbered 27019, which entered into force in 2008, it has become mandatory for certain buildings to have an energy performance certificate. According to the regulation made in 2022, certain standards were introduced to the contents of the energy performance certificate of buildings with Article 23 of the Regulation on Energy Performance in Buildings:
“The energy performance level in the Energy Performance Certificate of NSEB buildings must be B or better, and at the same time, the building must have renewable energy use of at least 10% of its primary energy needs.”
BEPY was established with the aim of aligning with the standards set out in the Energy Performance of Building Directive (“EPBD”) published by the European Union (“EU”) in 2002, and similar to EPBD, it introduced methods for measuring energy performance and set a common minimum level. The energy performance certificate introduced by BEPY is one of the practices created by EPBD to ensure energy efficiency, and BEPY has ensured compliance with EPBD in this regard.
Considering that most of the energy use in Turkey is in buildings, BEPY should be considered as a step towards Target 7.3, namely “doubling the global rate of energy efficiency progress by 2030”. This regulation aims to ensure energy efficiency through energy performance certificates and certain renewable energy utilization standards.
According to the researches, the heating performance for Istanbul, Ankara and Erzurum provinces is “B”. In order to increase heating performance and thus energy efficiency in these provinces, better quality and higher amount of insulation is needed15. This shows that Turkey also needs sound economic and environmental infrastructure for legal energy efficiency regulations to lead to tangible changes.
4. Energy Efficiency Action Plan
An Energy Efficiency Strategy Document was established in 2012 to improve energy efficiency in Turkey. This document includes targets planned to be accomplished by 2023. The Energy Efficiency Strategy Document was updated in 2017, taking into account global practices.
According to the targets of the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (“UEVEP”), 55 actions were set out in areas such as industry and technology, buildings, transportation and energy, and it was aimed to reduce primary energy consumption by 14% in 2023. It is estimated that 10.9 billion investments will be needed to achieve these targets and that the returns on these investments will amount to 8.4 billion dollars.
UEVEP is regulated in accordance with the EU Directive 2012/27/EU to ensure energy efficiency in Member States. When analyzed as a whole, UEVEP has expanded the scope of the regulations already in our legislation and set various targets for the public and private sectors. Increasing energy performance in buildings, public and private sector cooperation, establishment of energy management systems, increasing the share of renewable energy compared to other energy sources are the actions that UEVEP focuses on.
UEVEP serves the SDGs, especially with the action of establishing energy management systems. As mentioned, since the energy management systems cover both public buildings as well as commercial and service buildings, the responsibility for energy efficiency is no longer solely the responsibility of state administrations and cooperation with the private sector is increased. This action is an indication of a holistic approach to energy efficiency. This action plan shows that the UEVEP is in line with both SDG target 17 Partnerships for the Goals and target 7.3 “doubling the global rate of energy efficiency progress by 2030”, which prioritizes cooperation with the private sector.
Another focus of the UEVEP is the development of financing mechanisms for energy efficiency. According to this initiative, energy distribution and supply companies are obliged to fulfill energy efficiency obligations, and if they are unable to fulfill their obligations, they are required to contribute to national energy efficiency financing. Developing an up-to-date legislation for this financing mechanism will ensure that Turkey is in line with its goal of cooperation with the private sector under the SDGs.
Since 2017, when the targets of UEVEP are evaluated, 1.1 billion dollars worth of energy savings have been achieved by 2020. According to the 2020 data, 635 billion dollars were invested in energy efficiency and 158 billion dollars worth of primary energy savings were achieved. Due to the Covid-19 impact, only 53% of the UEVEP targets were met, but it was stated that 97% of the targets were fulfilled in 2017-2020. In 2021, according to the data announced by the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 1 billion 325 million dollars was invested in energy efficiency and 372 million dollars worth of energy savings were achieved. In line with these targets, nearly 10 thousand jobs were created and a total of 15.61 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions were reduced in 202116. Cumulatively, the targets were attained by 109% from 2017 to 2021. One of the main objectives of UEVEP is to achieve a 14% reduction in Turkey’s primary energy consumption. Within the scope of this objective, although current data on primary energy consumption is not available, considering energy intensity (energy intensity is an energy efficiency indicator that measures the energy required to produce gross national product based on national or regional data), a 3% reduction in energy intensity was achieved from 2017 until 202017.
5. Turkish Republic Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Strategic Plan (2019-2023)
Within the scope of the 2019-2023 Strategic Plans, the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, the Presidency of Strategy and Budget, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry have adopted the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals as a superior policy document and have planned their economic investments, policies and sectoral development targets with a focus on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (“Strategic Plan”), on the other hand, did not introduce any regulations under the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and adopted the UEVEP, which is regulated under the European Union Directives, and previously developed strategy documents as superior policy documents. Although it is not regulated under the SDGs, the Strategic Plan adopts strategies for target 7.2 “increase substantially the share of renewable energy in global energy mix by 2030”, aiming to increase the share of installed power based on local and renewable energy sources to more than half of the total installed power. However, investment plans for fossil fuel production and coal reserves in the Strategic Plan may lead to a decrease in the portion of renewable energy use. Planning to include nuclear energy among the supply sources in the Turkish energy market and aiming to continue efforts to increase its share in energy supply do not contribute to renewable and efficient energy use and envisage shortcut, fast and costly solutions to current energy demand.
Turkey is well advanced in terms of developing legislation and action plans within the scope of SDG target 7.3 “doubling the global rate of energy efficiency progress by 2030”. The regulations introduced have envisaged comprehensive changes in terms of renewable and efficient energy and have aligned with various SDGs, especially in the last decade, with a focus on increasing public and private sector cooperation and increasing the use of renewable energy. However, it should be noted that most of these legislative measures are not regulated within the scope of the SDGs, but rather based on EU Directives, aiming to integrate Turkey, as a candidate country, into EU legislation.
B. Turkey’s Evaluation of Practices within the Scope of Goal Seven
The “Sustainable Development Goals Assessment Report” prepared by the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey Strategy and Budget Directorate within the scope of the reporting obligation that is the responsibility of the countries within the scope of the Sustainable Development Goals was last published for 2019, and there is no report for 2020, 2021 and 2022.
According to the Sustainable Development Report published by the United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network (“SDSN”) on June 5, 2022, Turkey ranks 71st among 163 countries with a score of 70.4 in terms of overall performance. It was noted that there was little progress under Goal Seven, Accessible and Clean Energy, but there was no decline in performance compared to last year18.
Under target 7.1, which is titled “ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services by 2030”, according to World Bank data, access to electrical energy globally is 90.5% as of 2020, while this rate for Turkey is 100% according to 2019 data19.
Turkey’s biggest problem in access to electrical energy is the use of illegal electric power. Leakage rates in electricity distribution are high in Turkey. According to 2009 data, the rates are 4% in Japan and Germany, 5% in the USA and 14.5% in Turkey20. The damages caused by illegal electricity use are paid nationally as electricity theft tax. In order to improve efficiency in the transmission of energy, there is a need to increase inspections on illegal electricity use.
Within the scope of target 7.2 titiled “increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix by 2030”, according to the Industrial Development Bank of Turkey’s 2021 Energy Sector Outlook report, 53% of Turkey’s installed electricity capacity is currently generated by renewable energy power plants21.
Turkey has made various commitments on renewable energy through international agreements and in order to ensure regulatory integration with the EU. Turkey’s ratification of the Paris Agreement in 2021 and its Green Deal Action Plan to align with the European Union Green Deal include plans for the use of renewable energy in Turkey.
The Paris Agreement aims to strengthen worldwide resilience to climate change after 2020. According to the long-term goals, the world’s temperature rise should be kept below 2 degrees compared to the pre-industrialization period.
In order to achieve these targets, Turkey needs to increase its renewable energy investments and utilization in line with target 7.2.
When Turkey’s renewable energy production is evaluated, it is seen that all of the electricity generation capacity put into operation in recent years has been provided by renewable energy power plants. Renewable energy utilization outside the electricity sector is in its beginning stages in Turkey compared to other countries. In Turkey, more than 90% of the energy used in the agricultural sector is oil compared to other energy sources, while 80% of the energy used in the industrial sector comes from coal, oil and natural gas fossil fuels. In the transportation sector, there is almost no share of renewable energy and fossil fuels meet all of the energy needs22.
Turkey should increase the use of renewable energy sources in line with its commitments under both the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. Turkey, which is rapidly developing itself especially in areas such as airline and maritime transportation where carbon emissions are high, should get its energy from renewable sources rather than fossil fuels. Turning to hydrogen based engery sources in these areas may be a solution for Turkey to fulfill its goals.
In 2022, the Climate Transparency Report published by the Climate Transparency Organization stated that Turkey has potential in the field of renewable energy but has failed to make use of it. The report states that if measures are taken in the building, electricity and transportation sectors, a 32% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions is possible23.
Within the scope of the Green Deal, the European Union has the goal of becoming the first carbon neutral continent by 2050. Turkey, as a candidate country of the European Union, is taking steps in this regard. Within the scope of the Green Deal Action Plan, which is the most important step taken in this field, commitments have been made in the field of Clean, Economic and Secure Energy Supply. As part of these obligations, Turkey’s renewable energy and energy efficiency activities will be evaluated in the context of the Green Deal, and actions to raise public awareness of energy efficiency will be carried out.
Turkey’s Action Plan under the European Union Green Deal also defines strategies for circular economy, sustainable agriculture and renewable energy. Considering Turkey’s industrial structure, which is based on coal and has high carbon emissions, focusing on solutions that make more use of Turkey’s renewable energy potential would be more in line with the Green Deal’s main objective of net zero emissions of greenhouse gases.
VI. CONCLUSION
Turkey has introduced extensive regulations in terms of renewable and efficient energy and has aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, focusing on increasing public and private sector cooperation and increasing the use of renewable energy, especially in the last decade. However, most of these regulative arrangements are designed to integrate Turkey, as a candidate country to the EU, into the EU legislation. Within the scope of energy efficiency and renewable energy practices, it would be beneficial for Turkey to increase the use of renewable energy sources, especially in transportation, agriculture and industry sectors, in order to achieve sustainable development goals in energy efficiency.
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FOOTNOTE
1 Transferred from Çiğdem Üstün, “Küreselleşme ve Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma”, Global Akademi Konuşmaları Serisi (Global Akademi ve Uluslararası İlişkiler Konseyi), No. 4, November 2020, p.
3, Joseph Prokopenko, Verimliliği Teşvik Kuruluşları: Evrim ve Deneyim, Çeviri. Ankara 2004.
2 The right to environment is regulated in Article 56 of the Constıtutıon Of The Republic Of Turkey: “Article 56- Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution” October 20, 1982 dated and 17844 numbered Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey (OG).
3 United Nations, “Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (Brutland Report)”, 1987, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/5987our-common-future. pdf (Access Date, 10.10.2022).
4 For example, the European Union has established a Development Cooperation Policy within the scope of the Millennium Development Goals and has issued regulations and directives on this subject, leading to changes in the legislation of Member States.
5 T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Planlama Teşkilâtı Müsteşarlığı, “Binyıl Kalkınma Hedefleri Raporu”, 2010, http://www. surdurulebilirkalkinma.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/UNDP-TR-TR2010-MDG-Report_TR.pdf (Access Date, 10.10.2022).
6 UNDP Turkey, “The Global Goals for Sustainable Development” https:// www.kureselamaclar.org/en/ https:// www.kureselamaclar.org/ (Access Date, 15.10.2022).
7 UNDP Turkey, “The Global Goals for Sustainable Development”.
8 Bill Prindle/ Maggie Eldridge, “The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy”, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE), May 2007, s. 3.
9 SDSN Turkey, “Amaç 7: Erişilebilir ve Temiz Enerji”, http://unsdsn.boun.edu. tr/7-amac/ (Access Date, 12.10.2022).
10 SDSN Turkey, “Amaç 7: Erişilebilir ve Temiz Enerji”.
11 UNDP Türkiye, “Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma İçin Küresel Amaçlar”.
12 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Dışişleri Bakanlığı, “Türkiye’nin Uluslararası Enerji Stratejisi”. https://www.mfa.gov. tr/turkiye_nin-enerji-stratejisi.tr.mfa (Access Date, 12.10.2022).
13 TEİAŞ, “Türkiye Elektrik Üretim- İletim İstatistikleri”, https://www.teias.gov. tr/turkiye-elektrik-uretim-iletim-istatistikleri (Access Date: 13.10.2022).
14 İbrahim Uzun, “Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü ve Enerji Verimliliği”, MÜHENDİS ve MAKİNA Güncel, June 2022, p. 15.
15 İsmat Faruk Yaka/ Sadık Önal/ Abdulkadir Koçer/ Afşin Güngör, “Binalarda Enerji Performansının Belirlenmesinde Farklı İllerin Karşılaştırılması”, Küresel Mühendislik Çalışmaları Dergisi, Volume III, Issue 2, 2016, p. 133.
16 Enerji Verimliliği ve Çevre Dairesi Başkanlığı, “Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği Eylem Planı”, https://enerji.gov.tr/ evced-enerji-verimliligi-uevep (Access Date: 15.10.2022).
17 Enerji Verimliliği ve Çevre Dairesi Başkanlığı, “2020 Yılı Birincil ve Nihai Enerji Yoğunluğu”, Enerji Verimliliği Veri Analizi Serisi-1, November 2021, p. 2.
18 BM Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Çözümleri Ağı (SDSN), “2022 SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR KALKINMA RAPORU”, http://unsdsn. boun.edu.tr/2022-surdurulebilir-kalkinma-raporu/ (Access Date, 12.10.2022).
19 BM Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Çözümleri Ağı (SDSN), “2022 SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR KALKINMA RAPORU”.
20 Murat Aydın, “Enerji Verimliliğinin Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmadaki Rolü: Türkiye Değerlendirmesi”, Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, Volume XIV, Issue 28, 2016, p. 421.
21 Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası, “Enerji Görünümü”,https://www.tskb. com.tr/i/assets/document/pdf/enerji-sektor-gorunumu-2021.pdf (Access Date, 15.10.2022).
22 Kumru Türköz/ Utku Utkulu, “Türkiye’de Sektör-Kaynak Bazında Enerji Yapısının Doğrusal Olmayan Yöntemlerle Analizi”, Balıkesir University The Journal of Social Sciences Institute, Volume XXIII, Issue 43, June 2020, p. 144.
23 Climate Transparency, “Climate Transparency Report 2022”, 2022, https://www.climate-transparency. org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ CT2022-Summary-report.pdf (Access Date, 20.10.2022).
